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Chapter 22: Problem 20

List the barriers that prevent interbreeding and give an example of each.

Short Answer

Expert verified
Answer: The barriers that prevent interbreeding between different species are categorized into two main groups: prezygotic barriers and postzygotic barriers. Prezygotic barriers include: 1. Habitat isolation (e.g., one frog species living in ponds while another inhabits the forest floor) 2. Temporal isolation (e.g., flowers blooming in different seasons) 3. Behavioral isolation (e.g., bird species having unique songs and dances to attract mates) 4. Mechanical isolation (e.g., specialized genitalia in certain insects that only fit with members of their own species) 5. Gametic isolation (e.g., marine animals with gametes that only fuse with gametes from the same species) Postzygotic barriers include: 1. Hybrid inviability (e.g., a liger, a hybrid between a lion and a tiger, being weaker and having a lower survival rate) 2. Hybrid sterility (e.g., a mule, a hybrid between a horse and a donkey, being unable to reproduce) 3. Hybrid breakdown (e.g., first-generation plant hybrids being viable but their offspring being weak or sterile).

Step by step solution

01

(Step 1: Identify the types of barriers)

To successfully solve this exercise, the student needs first to identify the main types of barriers that prevent interbreeding. These barriers are categorized into two major groups: prezygotic barriers and postzygotic barriers.
02

(Step 2: Explain prezygotic barriers)

Prezygotic barriers are factors that prevent fertilization between different species, thus preventing the formation of a hybrid zygote. Examples of prezygotic barriers include habitat isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, and gametic isolation.
03

(Step 3: Provide examples of prezygotic barriers)

Let's list some examples for the prezygotic barriers mentioned above: 1. Habitat isolation: Two species live in different habitats within the same general area, making it difficult for them to encounter each other for mating. For example, one species of frog may live in ponds while another species inhabits the forest floor. 2. Temporal isolation: Species reproduce at different times or seasons. For instance, some flowers bloom in spring while others bloom in summer. 3. Behavioral isolation: Mating rituals and other courtship behaviors are unique to each species, preventing members of different species from recognizing each other as a suitable mate. Birds often display different songs and dances to attract mates. 4. Mechanical isolation: Differences in reproductive structures prevent successful mating between species. For example, the genitalia of some insects can be so specialized that they can only mate with members of their own species. 5. Gametic isolation: Gametes from different species are incompatible and cannot successfully combine to form a zygote. In certain marine animals, for instance, their gametes are released into the water column, but only gametes from the same species will fuse together.
04

(Step 4: Explain postzygotic barriers)

Postzygotic barriers are factors that act after the formation of a hybrid zygote and lead to reduced fitness or viability of the hybrid offspring. Examples of postzygotic barriers include hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility, and hybrid breakdown.
05

(Step 5: Provide examples of postzygotic barriers)

Let's look at some examples for the postzygotic barriers mentioned above: 1. Hybrid inviability: Hybrid offspring do not develop fully or are unable to survive in their environment. For example, when a lion and a tiger breed, the resulting offspring, called a liger, is often weaker and has a lower survival rate than both parent species. 2. Hybrid sterility: Hybrid offspring are unable to reproduce, either due to the inability to produce viable gametes or due to reproductive structures' abnormalities. The mule, which is a hybrid offspring of a horse and a donkey, is a well-known example of hybrid sterility, as typically, mules cannot produce offspring. 3. Hybrid breakdown: The first generation of hybrid offspring may appear healthy and viable, but subsequent generations suffer from reduced fitness or fertility. In plants, this phenomenon can occur when interbreeding between two closely related species results in a viable hybrid, but the hybrid's offspring are weak or sterile.

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Key Concepts

These are the key concepts you need to understand to accurately answer the question.

Prezygotic Barriers
When nature puts up roadblocks to romance, we're talking about prezygotic barriers. These are biological factors that prevent different species from mating successfully, or if they do mate, from producing viable offspring.

Consider the case of two birds that evolved distinctive mating calls. These calls, a form of behavioral isolation, ensure that only birds of the same species answer to each other's love songs. Similarly, if one plant species discharges its pollen in the spring and another in the autumn, they're separated by temporal isolation—their dating schedules are misaligned.

Moving to a more visual cue, two species might have incompatible reproductive organs, a situation called mechanical isolation. It's as if nature designed a lock and key system where only the correct species has the matching parts. And let's not forget those who release their future offspring into the sea; if the sperm and egg can't unite in the open waters, it's termed gametic isolation, a microscopic mismatch of epic proportions.

These barriers are fascinating not just for their variety, but for their role in steering the course of biodiversity on our planet.
Postzygotic Barriers
Imagine that despite all odds, two different species do manage to produce offspring. What then? That's where postzygotic barriers step in. These are mechanisms that come into play after fertilization, ensuring that the resulting hybrid offspring does not continue the cycle.

Take the liger, for instance. This is a product of a lion and a tiger, and these majestic beasts usually suffer from hybrid inviability; they are less likely to thrive. Others, like the mule, are textbook cases of hybrid sterility. They're fit, they're sturdy, but when it comes to creating the next generation, they're unable to contribute genetically. And then there's the less talked about but equally important hybrid breakdown. Here, the first mixed-species generation might be fine, but down the genetic line, their descendants run into trouble with survival or fertility.

The existence of these barriers reflects a complex evolutionary tapestry, where nature finds ways to maintain diversity by limiting how species combine their genetic guises.
Speciation Mechanisms
When Luke Skywalker asks Yoda how the Force binds the galaxy together, think of speciation as the Force of biology – it's the power that shapes life's diversity. Species form in a process known as speciation, where new, distinct groups emerge that can no longer interbreed.

One way this happens is through allopatric speciation, similar to two people growing apart because they've moved to different cities. If a river shifts course or a mountain range rises and separates populations, those groups might evolve in isolation until they're completely different species. Alternatively, sympatric speciation is more like two roommates becoming different people even though they live in the same house. In this case, the species share a habitat but evolve separately, often due to differences in feeding habits or mate preferences.

These processes rely heavily on prezygotic and postzygotic barriers, which are crucial in maintaining the identity of evolving species. The intricate dance between these barriers and the environment eventually leads to the beautiful complexity of life around us.
Reproductive Isolation
Like a social bubble for species, reproductive isolation keeps genetic material within each species' bubble intact and separate from others. This is the overarching theme that encompasses both prezygotic and postzygotic barriers and serves as a safeguard for species identity.

At its core, reproductive isolation ensures that a species' gene pool remains unaltered by outside genetic influences. Whether through timing, behavior, physical incompatibilities, or post-fertilization failures, these isolation mechanisms serve the same purpose: maintaining genetic integrity and enabling speciation.

Indeed, reproductive isolation is a pivotal element in the story of life's diversity. Without it, the crisp edges of what defines a species would blur, and the evolutionary experiment might not be as varied and vibrant as it is today.

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Most popular questions from this chapter

Consider rare disorders in a population caused by an autosomal recessive mutation. From the frequencies of the disorder in the population given, calculate the percentage of heterozygous carriers. (a) 0.0064 (b) 0.000081 (c) 0.09 (d) 0.01 (e) 0.10

Population geneticists study changes in the nature and amount of genetic variation in populations, the distribution of different genotypes, and how forces such as selection and drift act on genetic variation to bring about evolutionary change in populations and the formation of new species. From the explanation given in the chapter, what answers would you propose to the following fundamental questions? (a) How do we know how much genetic variation is in a population? (b) How do geneticists detect the presence of genetic variation as different alleles in a population? (c) How do we know whether the genetic structure of a population is static or dynamic? (d) How do we know when populations have diverged to the point that they form two different species? (e) How do we know the age of the last common ancestor shared by two species?

The use of nucleotide sequence data to measure genetic variability is complicated by the fact that the genes of higher eukaryotes are complex in organization and contain \(5^{\prime}\) and \(3^{\prime}\) flanking regions as well as introns. Researchers have compared the nucleotide sequence of two cloned alleles of the \(\gamma\) -globin gene from a single individual and found a variation of 1 percent. Those differences include 13 substitutions of one nucleotide for another and 3 short DNA segments that have been inserted in one allele or deleted in the other. None of the changes takes place in the gene's exons (coding regions). Why do you think this is so, and should it change our concept of genetic variation?

In a population of 10,000 individuals, where 3600 are \(M M\) 1600 are \(N N,\) and 4800 are \(M N,\) what are the frequencies of the \(M\) alleles and the \(N\) alleles?

The genetic difference between two Drosophila species, \(D\). heteroneura and \(D .\) sylvestris, as measured by nucleotide diversity, is about 1.8 percent. The difference between chimpanzees (P. troglodytes) and humans (H. sapiens) is about the same, yet the latter species are classified in different genera. In your opinion, is this valid? Explain why.
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