Explain the important distinctions between each pair of terms: (a) cathode rays and X-rays (b) protons and neutrons (c) nuclear charge and ionic charge (d) periods and groups of the periodic table (e) metal and nonmetal (f) the Avogadro constant and the mole

Cathode rays are streams of electrons, whereas X-rays are high-frequency electromagnetic radiation. Protons have a positive charge, neutrons are neutral. Nuclear charge is the total charge within an atom's nucleus determined by its protons, while ionic charge is that of an ion, based on its lost or gained electrons. In the periodic table, periods are horizontal rows, and groups are vertical columns, with elements in the same group sharing similar properties. Metals conduct heat and electricity and are malleable and ductile; nonmetals are poor conductors and, when solid, are brittle. The Avogadro constant is the number of particles in a mole (\(6.022 \times 10^{23}\)), whereas a mole is a unit for measuring quantity in chemistry.