What are the two major types of nucleic acids? List their principal components.

Deoxyribonucleic acid, commonly referred to as DNA, is akin to the blueprint of biological organisms. It is a long, double-stranded molecule that coils into a shape known as a double helix. Central to DNA's role is its capacity to store and transmit genetic instructions for the creation and functioning of organisms.

The backbone of DNA is composed of alternating sugars and phosphate groups. Attached to each sugar is one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T). These bases pair specifically—A with T and G with C—creating the rungs of the helical ladder. This base pairing is critical for DNA replication and for preserving the genetic code. When cells divide, DNA is replicated so that each new cell receives a complete set of instructions.

Ribonucleic acid, or RNA, while similar to DNA, plays a different role in cellular biology. It is typically a single-stranded molecule, allowing it to fold into complex three-dimensional shapes. This versatility makes RNA crucial for various cellular functions, including acting as a messenger and as a component of the cellular machinery.

The structure of RNA includes a sugar called ribose, phosphate groups, and a set of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U) in place of thymine. This change in bases affects how RNA interacts with other molecules, including DNA. Messenger RNA (mRNA), for example, serves as a temporary copy of genetic information contained within DNA, which is used during the process of protein synthesis.

Genetic instructions are the set of biological directives encoded in the sequence of nucleotides in DNA. These instructions are the guidebook for the development, function, growth, and reproduction of all living things. Every organism's DNA contains a unique set of genetic instructions that determine everything from cell structure to eye color.

The sequence of the four bases – adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine – forms genetic 'words' known as codons. Each codon specifies a particular amino acid, which are the building blocks of proteins. This complex code is inherited from an organism's parents and remains relatively constant throughout its life. During cell division, it's imperative that these genetic instructions are copied accurately to ensure the proper function of offspring cells.

Protein synthesis is the biological process by which cells build proteins, the workhorses of the cell that play critical roles in virtually all biological processes. This complex mechanism occurs in two stages: transcription and translation.

During transcription, the genetic instructions in DNA are copied to messenger RNA (mRNA), creating a mobile copy of the genetic code that can leave the cell nucleus. In translation, which takes place at the ribosome, the mRNA is used as a template to assemble a sequence of amino acids into a polypeptide chain – the primary structure of a protein. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules assist by bringing the appropriate amino acids into place according to the sequence coded in the mRNA. Once the polypeptide chain is complete, it folds into its functional three-dimensional structure and begins to perform its duties within the cell.