Compare the properties of: \(\alpha\) particles, cathode rays, protons, neutrons, and electrons. What is meant by the term "fundamental particle"?

Alpha particles play a significant role in the study of atomic structure. Essentially, an alpha particle is a type of radioactive emission and is composed of two protons and two neutrons. This means it carries a +2 charge, due to the protons. A fun fact about alpha particles is that they are identical to the nucleus of a helium-4 atom!

They're quite massive compared to other types of subatomic emissions, such as electrons or beta particles. Because of this mass, they have a relatively short range when passing through materials and can be stopped by a sheet of paper or human skin. In practical terms, this can be both good and bad. On the one hand, due to their size, they're less likely to penetrate deep into materials and cause damage. On the other, if they're emitted inside the body, say, from an inhaled radioactive particle, they can do significant harm to biological tissue.

Cathode rays are early scientific observations that led to the discovery of electrons. These rays are streams of electrons that are emitted from the cathode of a vacuum tube when an electrical current is passed through it. Cathode rays have a negative charge and are attracted to the positively charged anode in a cathode ray tube (CRT), a technology once widely used in television sets and computer monitors.

One interesting property of cathode rays is that they can be deflected by both electric and magnetic fields due to their charge. This deflection trait led to the development of various electron-based technologies, including the oscilloscope, which allows us to see electric signals by converting them to a visual display on a CRT.

Protons are one of the building blocks of the atomic nucleus and, therefore, of matter itself. These positively charged particles reside in the nucleus alongside neutrons. The number of protons in an atom's nucleus is what determines the chemical element; for instance, hydrogen has one proton, helium has two, and so on - this is also known as the atomic number.

Protons have a relative charge of +1 and a relatively large mass when compared with electrons. Interestingly, the proton's mass is approximately 1,836 times that of an electron. A common question is whether protons are fundamental particles. While they are considered fundamental in chemistry, high-energy physics has shown that they are actually made of even smaller particles called quarks.

Neutrons share the atomic nucleus with protons, but they're unique because they carry no electric charge - they're neutral. This lack of charge means that neutrons don't get involved in electromagnetic interactions the way protons and electrons do, but they are still subject to the strong nuclear force that holds the nucleus together.

Neutrons play a crucial role in the stability of an atom. Without neutrons, protons would repel each other due to their like charges, and the nucleus would not be able to hold together. The mass of a neutron is slightly larger than that of a proton. An interesting application of neutrons is in the process of nuclear fission, where the bombardment of heavy atomic nuclei with free neutrons can induce the splitting of the nucleus, releasing a significant amount of energy.

Electrons are perhaps the most well-known of the subatomic particles, playing a critical role in electricity, chemistry, and bonding. Having a negative charge, their movement around the nucleus in various shells or orbitals is what creates the chemical properties of an element. Electrons have a charge of -1, which is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the charge of a proton.

Despite their critical role, electrons have a minute mass compared to protons and neutrons. Owing to their charge and low mass, electrons are highly mobile and can be influenced greatly by electric and magnetic fields. This feature is what makes them so essential in circuits, allowing them to flow and create electric currents. Furthermore, the arrangement and distribution of electrons in an atom's outer orbitals determine how atoms will interact and bond with each other, which is the foundation of chemistry and material properties.