Consider a flat-plate solar collector placed on the roof of a house. The temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces of the glass cover are measured to be \(33^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\) and \(31^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\), respectively. The glass cover has a surface area of \(2.5 \mathrm{~m}^{2}\), a thickness of \(0.6 \mathrm{~cm}\), and a thermal conductivity of \(0.7 \mathrm{~W} / \mathrm{m} \cdot \mathrm{K}\). Heat is lost from the outer surface of the cover by convection and radiation with a convection heat transfer coefficient of \(10 \mathrm{~W} /\) \(\mathrm{m}^{2} \cdot \mathrm{K}\) and an ambient temperature of \(15^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\). Determine the fraction of heat lost from the glass cover by radiation.

Thermal conductivity is a material's ability to conduct heat. It plays a pivotal role in the efficiency of a solar collector, where heat must travel through the collector's materials to be harnessed for use. In the given problem, we used the thermal conductivity value (\( k = 0.7 \text{ W/(m{\text{cdot}}K) }\)) to calculate the heat transfer through the glass due to conduction.

The formula \( q = k A \frac{(T_{in} - T_{out})} {d} \) directly relates to the thermal conductivity of the material. The heat flux (\( q \)) is higher if the material has a high thermal conductivity and a significant temperature difference across it. The glass cover's thickness (\( d \: 0.6 \text{ cm or } 0.006 \text{ m} \) ) inversely affects the heat transfer—thinner materials lead to higher heat flux for the same temperature difference. By keeping the surfaces at controlled temperatures and using materials with known thermal conductivities, we can enhance the solar collector's efficiency and reduce energy losses.

Convection heat transfer involves the movement of heat due to the fluid (air or liquid) flowing over a surface. In the case of our solar collector, the air moving over its glass surface carries away heat, cooling the system. The convection heat transfer coefficient (\( h = 10 \text{ W/(m^2{\text{cdot}}K) } \) ) is a measure of how well heat is transferred from the surface to the fluid.

The convection heat transfer equation, \( q_{conv} = h A \Delta T \) is used to calculate the heat loss due to the air flowing over the glass cover of the solar collector. Here, \( A \) represents the surface area, and \( \Delta T \) is the temperature difference between the outer surface of the glass and the ambient air temperature. A larger surface area, a higher convection coefficient, or a greater temperature difference will all result in more heat being carried away by convection. To improve the performance of solar collectors, reducing convection heat losses is important and can be achieved by design features like protective covers or selective coatings.

Radiation heat loss is the emission of heat from a surface in the form of electromagnetic waves. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require a medium to transfer heat. In solar collectors, the glass surface radiates heat energy back into the environment, which can be a significant source of heat loss, especially during cooler periods.

In the example problem, after calculating conduction and convection losses, we are left with an error in the radiation heat loss calculation, indicated by a negative result. Radiation losses should always be a positive value since they signify energy leaving the system. In a real-world scenario, a negative radiation value suggests that there are errors in measurement or calculations. To accurately determine heat loss by radiation, factors like emissivity of the glass, temperature, and Stefan-Boltzmann constant would be incorporated. Radiation heat loss can be minimized with anti-reflective or low-emissivity coatings, which reflect or absorb infrared radiation while allowing visible light to pass through, thereby retaining more heat within the solar collector.