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Chapter 7: Problem 48

Show that the boundary of the boundary of any chain is zero: \(\partial \partial c_{k}=0\).

Short Answer

Expert verified
Question: Prove that the boundary of the boundary of any chain is zero in homology theory. Answer: To prove that the boundary of the boundary of any chain is zero (\(\partial \partial c_k = 0\)), we first recall the definition of the boundary operator \(\partial\), which acts on a chain \(c_{k}\) consisting of \(k\)-simplices and returns a chain \(\partial c_{k}\) consisting of \((k - 1)\)-simplices. We applied the boundary operator twice to a single \(k\)-simplex \(\sigma_{k}\) and showed that the result is zero. Finally, we extended the result to any chain, showing that the boundary of the boundary of any chain is zero. Therefore, in homology theory, we have \(\partial \partial c_k = 0\).

Step by step solution

01

Recall the definition of the boundary operator

The boundary operator \(\partial\) is a function that acts on a chain \(c_{k}\) consisting of \(k\)-simplices and returns a chain \(\partial c_{k}\) consisting of \((k - 1)\)-simplices. The boundary operator is defined as follows for a single \(k\)-simplex \(\sigma_{k}\): $$\partial(\sigma_{k}) = \sum_{i = 0}^{k} (-1)^i \sigma_{k}^{i},$$ where \(\sigma_{k}^{i}\) denotes the \(i\)-th face of \(\sigma_{k}\) obtained by omitting the vertex \(v_{i}\). Note that if we apply the boundary operator again, we are going to obtain a chain consisting of \((k - 2)\)-simplices.
02

Apply the boundary operator twice to a single \(k\)-simplex

Let's apply the boundary operator twice to a single \(k\)-simplex \(\sigma_{k}\): $$\partial(\partial(\sigma_{k})) = \partial\left(\sum_{i = 0}^{k} (-1)^i \sigma_{k}^{i}\right).$$ Now, let's apply the boundary operator \(\partial\) to each \((k - 1)\)-simplex \(\sigma_{k}^{i}\): $$\partial(\partial(\sigma_{k})) = \sum_{i = 0}^{k} (-1)^i \partial(\sigma_{k}^{i}).$$ Recall that for each simplex \(\sigma_{k}^{i}\), the boundary operator acts as follows: $$\partial(\sigma_{k}^{i}) = \sum_{j = 0}^{k - 1} (-1)^j (\sigma_{k}^{i})^{j}.$$
03

Combine the two sums and simplify

Combining the two sums, we have: $$\partial(\partial(\sigma_{k})) = \sum_{i = 0}^{k} \sum_{j = 0}^{k - 1} (-1)^{i + j} (\sigma_{k}^{i})^{j}.$$ We can see that each \((k-2)\)-simplex in the sum comes from two adjacent \((k-1)\)-simplices of the original \(k\)-simplex, with opposite signs: $$(-1)^{i + j} (\sigma_{k}^{i})^{j} + (-1)^{(i+1) + j}(\sigma_{k}^{i + 1})^{j} = 0$$ Summing over these pairs, we obtain: $$\partial(\partial(\sigma_{k})) = 0$$
04

Apply the result to any chain

Since the boundary of any chain \(c_k\) is a linear combination of its \(k\)-simplices: $$\partial c_k = \sum_{l=1}^{n} a_l \partial \sigma_k^l$$ we can apply the result obtained in Step 3 to each \(k\)-simplex in the chain: $$\partial(\partial c_k) = \sum_{l=1}^{n} a_l \partial(\partial \sigma_k^l) = \sum_{l=1}^{n} a_l * 0 = 0$$ Thus, we have shown that the boundary of the boundary of any chain is zero: $$\partial \partial c_k = 0.$$

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Key Concepts

These are the key concepts you need to understand to accurately answer the question.

Simplicial Homology
At the heart of algebraic topology, simplicial homology provides a tool for analyzing the topological features of a space, such as holes of various dimensions, within the framework of simplicial complexes. A simplicial complex is a collection of simplices, which are geometric objects like points (0-simplices), line segments (1-simplices), triangles (2-simplices), and their higher-dimensional counterparts.

In homology, we primarily look at the sequence of abelian groups known as the homology groups which indicate the presence of 'holes' in a space. The boundary operator \(\partial\), which connects these groups, is a central concept for understanding homology. For a given chain—essentially a formal sum of simplices—the boundary operator breaks it down into its constituent faces, helping identify the holes through its successive application. As explained in the problem, the boundary operator has the crucial property that when applied twice in succession, it yields zero. Practically, this property helps us ensure that the boundaries we find actually enclose a 'hole' and are not just part of a higher-dimensional simplex.
Chain Complexes
Chain complexes are the backbone of simplifying the computation in homological algebra, extending beyond simplicial homology to a more generalized setting. A chain complex is a sequence of abelian groups (or modules) connected by homomorphisms called boundary operators. These groups are constructed from the chains of simplices, and the boundary operators diminish the dimension of these chains by one. The sequence has a pivotal condition that the composition of two consecutive boundary operators is the zero map. This is written mathematically as \(\partial \partial = 0\).

The presence of this zero map implies that the image of one boundary map is contained within the kernel (nullspace) of the following map. This condition gives rise to important subgroups, called cycles and boundaries, whose quotient group forms the homology group of the chain complex. This process effectively measures the 'hole structure' within the complex, and the persistence of certain holes through subsequent boundary applications reveals the intrinsic topology of the shape.
Algebraic Topology
Algebraic topology is a field of mathematics where topologists strive to understand the shape, structure, and properties of spaces through the lens of algebra. The crux of algebraic topology is translating topological problems into algebraic ones, which often allows for more accessible solutions. Through concepts like simplicial complexes, homologies, and homotopies, algebraic topologists seek to classify spaces based on continuous deformations.

The boundary operator is a key algebraic tool in this endeavor, facilitating the construction of homology groups that classify and distinguish spaces. Its nullifying property upon repeated application is foundational to confirming the internal consistency of these algebraic representations. Concepts like the boundary of a boundary being zero provide a stepping stone to defining and understanding invariants such as Betti numbers which, informally speaking, count the number of holes in each dimension, making it possible to characterize a space's topological nature algebraically.

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Most popular questions from this chapter

Show that the maps \(\mathbf{A} \rightarrow \omega_{A}^{1}\) and \(\mathrm{A} \rightarrow \omega_{A}^{2}\) establish isomorphisms of the lineat spacx \(\mathbb{R}^{3}\) of vectors \(A\) with the linear spaces of 1 -forms on \(\mathbb{R}^{3}\) and 2 -forms on \(\mathbb{R}^{3}\). If we choose an orthonormal oriented coordinate system \(\left(x_{1}, x_{2}, x_{3}\right)\) on \(\mathbb{R}^{3}\). then $$ \omega_{A}^{1}=A_{1} x_{1}+A_{2} x_{2}+A_{3} x_{3} $$

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