Discuss in what ways memory does and does not decline in late adulthood. Loss of memory in late adulthood is not general but specific to certain kinds of memory. Episodic memories are most affected, while semantic and implicit memories are largely unaffected. Short-term memory declines gradually until age 70 , then deteriorates quickly. Explanations of memory changes may focus on environmental factors, information processing declines, and biological factors. Which approach is most accurate is not entirely settled.

Episodic memory involves our personal narratives: the who, what, when, and where of our individual life history. As we age, this type of memory often shows the most noticeable decline, with older adults sometimes struggling to recall specific events, experiences, or the context in which they occurred. This is largely because episodic memories are intricately linked with specific details and are more sensitive to the aging process.

One reason behind their vulnerability is the hippocampus - a brain structure crucial for forming new episodic memories - which can diminish in volume with age. Furthermore, episodic memories require an active reconstruction process, which can be affected by age-related cognitive slowdown.

Semantic memory, on the other hand, is the repository of general knowledge about the world, unrelated to personal experience. Think of it as a mental encyclopedia or dictionary. Even in later adulthood, this kind of memory stays relatively intact. The knowledge of facts, concepts, and meanings we have gathered throughout life remains accessible.

For example, elders often continue to perform well in areas like vocabulary tests — a testament to the robustness of their semantic memory. This resilience is likely due to the distributed nature of semantic memories across various regions of the brain, making them less susceptible to the effects of aging seen in episodic memory.

Implicit memory is automatic and unconscious. It’s the type of memory we use when we perform tasks without actively thinking about them, like riding a bike or typing on a keyboard. Studies have shown that this type of memory remains relatively stable in late adulthood.

This stability could be due to the often-practiced and routine nature of tasks associated with implicit memory, which relies on different brain systems than those which govern explicit memory (which includes both episodic and semantic memory). Consequently, seniors may find that their ability to perform familiar tasks remains unaffected even as they experience declines in other memory areas.

Short-term memory, or working memory, refers to the capability to hold and manipulate information in mind over brief periods of time. It's often likened to the brain's 'post-it notes'. Research indicates that short-term memory does exhibit a gradual decline during late adulthood, and more pronounced deterioration after age 70.

This decline can be observed in everyday scenarios, such as forgetting what one was about to say mid-sentence or the inability to hold several items in mind while problem-solving. Cognitive exercises and staying mentally active may help buffer against some of this decline.

The environment in which we age can play a pivotal role in how memory is maintained or declines. Factors such as continual learning, social engagement, and physical activity have been positively associated with memory preservation.

Conversely, environments lacking stimulation or with negative stressors may exacerbate memory decline. Access to resources that promote a healthy lifestyle, including nutrition and healthcare, also fall under this category and can hugely influence cognitive aging.

As people age, there are general slowdowns in the speed and efficiency of cognitive processes, including attention, memory encoding, and retrieval. It's like the difference between a brand-new computer and one that's been running for years.

The slower information processing affects memory, often making it more challenging for older adults to learn new information quickly or multitask effectively. However, older individuals can use compensatory strategies, such as repetition or mnemonic devices, to mitigate some of these processing declines.

On a biological level, changes in the brain due to aging can impact memory functions. Neurons may become less efficient, synapses may degrade, and overall brain volume can decline. Neurotransmitter systems responsible for communication between neurons also change with age and can affect cognitive abilities.

Additionally, diseases such as Alzheimer's or other forms of dementia stem from distinct biological processes that lead to memory decline. These conditions go beyond the normal aging process and require specialized medical attention for management and care.